Commentaries for Same Group Members' Polished Thesis Draft Essay

Commentaries for Same Group Members Polished Thesis Draft - Essay ExampleRather what can be used is how Kripals book and comments do in the book on the topic of discussion is related to the paper.Although several quotes have been used in the paper, but it is also important to discuss curtly the inner meaning of these quotes, these are not provided sufficiently in the paper. For instance, Atmajnananandas remark on Kripals thought has not been properly discussed in the paper.It is incompatible to use the sentence This paper discusses the relationship between the religious organization Soka Gakkai and Komeito, a Japanese political party in the beginning of the abstract. Rather the plan idea about the topic and its importance can be provided in the abstract first followed by the sentence.The in-text referencing style is not properly used in the entire paper. Also there is no proper reference or bibliography list of references at the end of the paper. In the reference list short expl anation of books or journal papers or websites are not required.The section Soka Gakkai and Komeito 1970-present is too long period. This period can be distributed into different time phases in terms of importance of Soka Gakkai and Komeito in the religious structure of the country.It has been written in the paper that One national, 13 regional and 47 prefectural Councils on social Affairs determine the Soka Gakkais endorsements, however the importance of this determination is not clear from following

Answer a few questions to participate in a volunteer trip abroad Essay

Answer a few questions to participate in a volunteer trip abroad - Essay Examplelusions about what I will face there having seen the devastation on the news and having heard first-hand accounts from family members who assume suffered through the crisis. Im well aware that the trip will be a difficult one and I will have to prove myself in the field. nonetheless I feel completely prepared and willing to undertake this challenge.I work very well in team situations and have always create a good rapport with peers, co-workers, professors and employers. While I highly enjoy teamwork I also have the motivation and knowledge to work efficiently and singly on major projects. I work extremely well under pres surely and have always been able to put my best forward and let top results. Results are important to me. I was taught from a young age to strive to do my best in everything I do. I always fall in for the top. I want to be a leader and do my best in the field in Haiti. I know that le adership means having ace and believing in what youre doing. I also think this would be a very serious and intense learning experience for me and would allow me to reach external of my comfort zone and test myself. It is very important to understand different cultures and to be respectful towards them. I strive, in everything I do, to follow this rule. Im of Haitian business so Haiti is not a different culture than mine, and I can fit in there. But with other cultures I am always sure to do my best to be respectful. I practically buy food from a small Korean grocery near my house. Although the people there often do not speak English I do my best to great them politely in simple language. When there is a misunderstanding everywhere the price I calmly take the time to talk to them. Get angry never solves anything.As I explained earlier, the earthquake was personally devastating for me as I knew people who live in Haiti. It was a truly traumatic occasion. I remember weeping as I s aw the images on telly and feeling powerless. I went to church and

Changing of International Order in the Last Century Essay

Changing of external Order in the Last Century - Essay ExampleThis cover argues that changes in global order were in a way that people attained more rights and powers over their day to day life, and states improved their international relations. In the first section, the paper will address various concepts of international order. Subsequent sections will discuss factors contributed to the international order change over the live on century. International order changes Historically, it is observed that global countries depend on each other for trading activities, technological and education progress, and infrastructure development. The emergence of globalisation greatly contributed to increase interaction between global countries. Scholars opine that the concept of international order creates a link between economic and political dimensions as political constancy significantly influences a countrys economic landscape. Generally, concepts of international order give specific focus to states and consider war as a decisive evil to be exorcised. Evidently, wars can make notable changes to the international order. One widespread notion of international order equates order with international stability, that is, stable, predictable and controlled relations between states, in which turbulence, chaos and violence are largely (though not necessarily completely) absent (Maull, 2005, p.94). ... To illustrate, the constructivism theory connected the evolution of international order to international relations. As discussed earlier, wars can have a great influence on the international order. Evidently, the World contends I & II notably changed the international order. Although the World war I was considered the fight to End All Wars, it directly led to World War II. These two World Wars significantly fuelled the international order changes over the delay century. Many authors opine that the interwar period was characterised with radical changes in the international ord er and it observed notable changes in the balance of power approach that had existed in the pre-World War I Europe. According to Ikenberry (2008), the World Wars led to the advent of the American era which in turn contributed to the formation of post-World War II international order. Throughout the post-World War II international order, an American dominance has been evident. Significant changes in the international order over the last century can be attributed to many geomorphologic changes in the global context and other global developments. Evidently, changes in the Soviet Union and Europe were a prime cause for international order changes occurred during the last century. The changes in East-West relations emerged over the last century could be directly ascribed to Soviet Union, specifically the presidency exercised by Gorbachev. Sociologists point out that domestic reforms including perestroika and glasnost punish by Gorbachev and Soviet foreign policy new thinking markedly co ntributed to the development of a new international order. It is an undisputed fact that

American Indian Literature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American Indian Literature - Essay ExampleThus, his ability to defend his people allows him to be seen as a hero by his tribesmen, and this also allows him to be idolize and celebrated by his people.Since warriors were so important to all autochthonic American tribes, throughout their literature, we see the conception of the warrior as a hero, or as a powerful individual, bustling throughout this literature. Take, for example, the story of Lucy, Oklahoma in which medicine men become warriors, by way of witchcraft, on behalf of one of their abused kin. Medicine men are revered in Native American cultures, too, arent they Of course they are-however, they are not unremarkably seen as the heroes of battles-this is reserved for the warriors. If these medicine men are going to do their tribe justice and take revenge, they must fight. So, even though they are revered members of the tribe, we see that the status of the warrior in the tribe is even more revered-and thus, again, these men, in order to be heroes and to defend their tribes ideals, must become warriors.The status of the warrior in the Native American tribe is therefore revered and even holy. The ability of the warrior to defend his tribe and assure the tribes survival, as well as the tribes own respect and prestigiousness (as is the case in Lucy, Oklahoma) becomes very important to the tribes own pride and honor.

Personality Assessment Instruments Essay Example for Free

temperament Assessment Instruments Essay constitution Assessment instruments ar comprised of theories and techniques to measure an soulfulnesss reputation traits. The traditional psychoanalytical theories provide a framework for sympathiseing negative behavior as well as concepts that predict future behavioral outcomes. Because of the possibility of predictive reputation traits, c atomic number 18er counselors and organizations arouse used personality assessment instruments to screen possible employers for qualification.In addition, personality assessment instrument stomach also been used to come up disordered personalities or other un ensconced issues that cause negative behavior patterns in an individual. In this paper I allow for discuss three Personality Assessment Instruments widely used in measuring an individuals personality Myer-Briggs Type Indicator, inkblot test Inkblot Test and self serve well books. I allow discuss the rigorousness, comprehensiveness, a pplicability and cultural utility of these personality assessments in also examine the strengths and weaknesses of why some work and some do non.The strength and weaknesses of for each one personality assessment instrument is key in understanding which instrument is inhibit to use. Myer-Briggs Type Indicator Largely based on Carl Jungs surmisal of Personality, The Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was created by Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myer, during WWII to evaluate personality types to know where to place women entering the industrial workforce. The MBTI would assess women for jobs they were best qualified for.Seeing how happy the MBTI was in placing women in the workforce, today it is still used as an assessment instrument by career counselors and organizations for team building (McCaulley, 2000). The MBTI is a self-report, forced-choice questionnaire. The letters render the respective personality types which have 16 unique possible outcomes. The test has abou t 100 questions with only two choices to pick from. MBTI divides an individuals personality into four areas (McCaulley, 2000)1. Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I) . Sensing (S) or intuition (N) 3. Thinking (T) or feeling (F) 4. Judging (J) or perceiving (P) This scale is an important grammatical constituent in determining the dominant, auxiliary, tertiary and inferior behaviors of the individual (McCaulley, 2000). Each individual is measured by the four-letter type formula. Each group of letters reveals the dominant dish up of the individual and followed by the auxiliary. Each of the 16 combination of letters explains the persons personality and what area they best function in. Rorschach Inkblot TestHermann Rorschach, Swiss psychiatrist, created ill-defined designs on paper using ink. After much trial and error, Rorschach settled on 10 inkblot notices used to show to patients and illegitimate a response. It was determined that different patients in a particular psychiatric gro up gave different responses. The test was created to understand the mind of an individual. During the assessment, the patient is shown a card and is expected to explain the thoughts that come to mind when analyzing the card (Cervone, 2010). The test-giver waits to see the type of response that comes from the patient.And the question of how the patient responds or perceives the inkblot determines the type of personality the patient may have. If the patients response matches the inkblot structures intended meaning, then the patients thoughts are geared towards their reality. If the patients response does not correspond with the inkblot then the patient is perceived to have a dysfunctional personality. Self-Help Books Widely popular, Self-help books are a great way for a person to understand psychological disorders and possible treatments.There are a variety of books written by scholars and psychologist who have done extensive work in their area of expertise. umpteen people who are s keptical about going to therapy choose self-help books as a way to self-administer treatment (Redding et. al, 2008). The problem people face when relying on these books for help is that there is no discussion to make sure that the person understands what they are reading. Also, the books sensnot assess the person to see if they can help the person like the MBTI and Rorschach Inkblot do.There is no way to measure if the specific book can help the person. Personality Assessments from Theory to Practice In this next section I will examine the validity, comprehensiveness, applicability and cultural utility. Throughout my research I have discovered that some critics have argued that each of these personality assessment instruments have weaknesses that do not support what it claims to produce. Others critics have shown the strengths in these widely used personality assessment to be applied in various cultures that have shown conformable scoring.Validity One of the most widely used perso nality assessment instruments is self-help books. They are easily accessible by most people seeking to resolve psychological issues. However, it is difficult to say if what the writer proposes to be a solution works effectively for the reader (Redding et. al. , 2008). The problem with the validity of self-help books is that not all are written by professional psychologist. Often people are faced with serious psychological disorders that they wish to resolve on their own as foreign to therapy (Redding et. l, 2008).Another issue with self-help books is that they do not test people to see if they have applied the information coming from the book to the area in their liveliness where they face challenges nor can it pinpoint the exact disorder a person is dealing with. I would have to say that the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator holds the most validity out of the three personality assessment instruments and is the most favored. The MBTI has been tested and based on the 16 different possible personality types most people have fallen under one of the combinations.The MBTI follows the theory of personality traits by Carl Jung. Jungs theory distinguishes two dichotomous pairs of cognitive behavior extraversion and introversion (McCaulley, 2008). The MBTI has been shown to be successful in determining an individuals personality that fits a specific career or in organizing groups for team building. On the other hand, when a person has been assessed using the Rorschach inkblot test, disordered personality can be revealed thru extensive testing. The validity of the Rorschach inkblot test as but argued that there is a bias in the testing because Hermann Rorschachs education was in psychoanalytical theories.Another problem that arises with the Rorschach in examining its validity is the scoring of the test. some(prenominal) of the scorers give a higher score to the test taker if their response matches those of previous scorers (Sendin, 2010). Comprehensiveness Self-help books focus on an areas in an individuals life such(prenominal) as alcohol addictions, Attention Deficit Disorder, How to deal with a Break-Up. And while the books can be informative the theory behind the solution must be examined.Most self-help books are written in the opinion of the author writing the book. Some of these opinions may not be in accord with the readers background so it is difficult to say if the reader is able to comprehend what the author is conveying (Redding et. al, 2008). It also depends only what the reader is looking for. If the reader is clear-cut to alternative solutions as opposed to traditional one then the book will help but because a person is not tested on the self-help books they are reading it is hard to determine how comprehensive the book is.MBTI has 16 possible personality types that this world-wide instrument uses to address issues faced by individuals, groups and family counseling that are challenged with communication, career planning, learning and l ife -long development (McCaulley, 2000). When assessing an individuals personality not only is this helpful in career counseling but also when determining why individuals or family members are having communication problems. Applicability Self-help books can be easy to understand. Some of the methods are broken down in sincere steps that anyone can apply.However, if one wants to assess the type of personality that can handle a certain job the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator is more appropriate to use. This assessment instrument has been used by career counselors and employers to match individuals to specific studies or industries (McCaulley, 2008). I would not recommend using the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator when assessing an individuals personality for disorders. The Rorschach Inkblot has been a successful instrument in examining the mind of a person (Cervone, 2010).However, the Rorschach inkblot was constructed according to Hermann Rorschachs training in psychoanalytical theory. Cultural Utility Each culture is made of its own belief system and traditions. What applies in one culture may not necessarily apply in another. Some assessments can be used in most cultures and give the same results across the board. However, not all cultures will accept the theories behind the assessment. The issues that I have noticed in researching the MBTI and Rorschach Inkblot test is that in applying to different cultures there has been challenges faced by psychologist.For one, psychologists have not had extensive training in cultural diversity. Nor have they had training in language. Most ethnic low income groups have had poor health service in which there has been a misdiagnosis due to language barrier (Dana, 2000). Also to consider are groups who come from another country and have different views on the genial health system. For example, in administering the MBTI and Rorschach Inkblot test to Russian Jews challenges are faced because of their cultural belief.Russian Jews are highl y suspicious of mental health professionals and feel it difficult to believe that community health agencies do not have ties to the government (Dana, 200). As a result, they deny any mental health issues. The consternation that exists with Russian Jews is because of the way they saw the Soviet Government force people to commit to a mental health institute (Dana, 2000). Consequently, self help books have been successful in reaching a mass audience because books have been published in various languages. ConclusionAs you can see Personality Assessment Instruments have been very useful in helping to examine an individuals personality for career choices, in team building and examining a disorder. However, specialist have has revealed their weaknesses and show that these instruments cannot be applied in any situation without further investigation. Each personality assessment instrument is unique with its own characters. In order to be able to better serve the mental health industry only a particular assessment can be used for a specific analysis.

Challenges that working women face today Essay Example for Free

Challenges that working wo custody face today EssayIntroductionIn todays shade where individualism is emphasized and especially that women are encouraged to assume affect roles as men would normally acquit, two or three decades ago, it is very tricky to see eye to eye with how women are during biblical times. Girl power or women empowerment is the rule of the day for women nowadays.Although, of course, all women as all men demand the right to lead in the sense that they have the same intrinsic capacity to influence, the role of leadership has been blown out of proportion by feminist groups as they apply it to women. The result of this over blown leadership role of women has been the constant battle between members of opposite sexes in many epochal areas within society. It has affected the homes, government and non-government institutions, down to the smallest entity that has within its membership men and women.The ChallengesToday, despite the liberty afforded to women sin ce their right to suffrage had been granted, myriads of problems assails them as they exercise many of their freedoms. These complicate sexual harassment and abuse, balancing family life and, still being debated to a stage is the issue on an equit adapted salary or pay.Generally, the women today have double jobs non to mention the close attention they pay towards their childrens schooling. This is usually true in urbanized and highly educated centers in the mainland USA. patronage these changes of traditional roles of women in the cities, there are yet rural areas where women assume roles that are still traditional. Women in these areas are still known to be submissive to their men oftentimes abuses are the rule not the exception.Abuses come in the form of incest, rape, lure of prostitution, cybernet prostitution, abortion, domestic violence, sex tourism, and mail order brides among others. However, without exception, more slight educated women are abused than their more educat ed counterparts who also have more access to social services. In other words, the abuses menti unmatchedd char be activeerized women, though the incidence and degree are comparatively higher in the less educated and misplaced/marginalized areas (Malveuax et al., 2002). Salary EquityDespite the provision by law that there should be equal remuneration standards for men and women, many firms and workplaces continue to abuse women of this right (Equal Employment Opportunity Act). This law precisely was originally intended for women to receive equal pay and be protected against anomalous employers who make whimsical decisions regarding their women employees.It provides against employers who may lower wages from either sex or labor organizations that will flack to influence employers against employees wages (Taber, 2008). The question is how prevalent is the discrimination or abuse on employee salaries? Basically, most occupations still show discrepancy with women versus men wages, altho ugh various explanations are put forth. However the factors may be explained, the fact still remains that women lose around 20 to 30 percent to that of mens income (77cents to one dollar for men) as reported by The Washington Post (2007 July).Balancing Work and family (Work-Life Initiatives)Work-life initiatives are strategies implemented by firms to reduce turnover and increase productiveness and overall firm performance. Studies were made to examine the influence and effects of work-life initiatives on employees and the organization in general. Workplace diversity which incorporates the concepts of work-life initiatives does indicate that it is inevitable that when a companionship introduces work-life initiatives, there is a resulting increase in diversity. Substantial evidence point to the effectiveness of workplace diversity hence, many institutions encourage and promote this in their incident milieu (http//www.cmdronline.com/workshops.htm).It is inevitable that juggling work and family life will be one of a persons demanding experiences. The rationale for having a job is not only to have a livelihood, achieve personal satisfaction in the expression of his abilities and trainings, and receive his remuneration and perks on the side. Preparation for family stability to be able to provide and thus create an atmosphere of care, for bachelors/maidens, is also the foremost and logical reason for having a job.However, the thin thread that separates between the two polarities becomes blurred, and there lies the accent that pulls a person in different directions. The Center for Mediation and controversy Resolution opens its website with the following quote Our life is one giant balancing act (http//www.cmdronline.com/workshops.htm). Perhaps, no person will ever disagree with that statement. The goal then is to know how to do the balancing act, to gain competencies in achieving a rewarding, flourishing mixture of life that holds work in one hand, while maintaini ng a well-nurtured and healthy family on the other hand.Sex HarassmentWhat is perhaps most important to womens well-being is their security against abuse of any form from employers, fellow employees and other people as they conduct their day-to-day affairs. Sex harassment is defined by the Womens Justice Network as sexual harassment is any unwelcome sexual advance, request for sexual favors, and other verbal or fleshly conduct of a sexual nature. Whether sexual harassment is from a supervisor, co-workers or customers, it is an attempt to assert power over another person. The harassment may take place in your work setting, outside of your work setting, in your home, while traveling on business or at business rifles (20002).Conclusion term at the moment, the common cry of women is equality to both genders as it is reflected in womens roles in the family, in cosmos places, and the obliteration of the stereotyped designation of females in past decades which until now has its bearing in the minds of the general public the consequent outcome of this campaign is prevalent in almost every area where function is concerned. In the late 1960s, womens movement began to blossom. It was stirred by the then sentiment of repulsion to the tasks being typecasted among women. Womens movement of the 60s aimed to question the menial duties relegated to women such as getting married, becoming a housewife and afterwards attending to household chores (including raising children), and when outside opportunity comes for them to work, theyre consigned to answering phones, photocopying, etc (Encarta, 2006).The scenery has been changed and is no longer the same as in the past 30 or 40 years. The typical woman today is one that is among the working class no longer confined to house premises, but working and providing as much as her male counterparts. She can be the manager or an executive of an established firm where most of the male employees are under her command. Equality in role s has now been achieved. Whereas this status and depiction of women in itself is not outright negative, the undercurrent armament that it has created is the programming of the minds of todays women to be resistant to the biblical description of their role as they are teamed with men.Instead of seeing male and female union as complimentary to both sexes, the danger of too much emphasis on equality especially when it is defined merely in domestic and public functions is the threat that masculinity poses to womanhood. It is good for women to fight for their basic equal rights with men as members of this global community, but if it results in certain imbalances because the aim has become the deposition of the opposite gender, then the battle for equality has now turned into fight for superiority of the female sex.Reference1. Encarta Dictionary 2006. (DVD).2. Malveaux, Julianne, Deborah Perry, Deborah L. Perry. 2002. Unfinished Business A populist and a Republican Take on the 10 Most I mportant Issues Women Face. Penguin Group USA.3. Halonen, JS and JW Santrock, 1996. Psychology Contexts of Behavior, Dubuque, IA Brown and Benchmark, p.810.4. __________ Values what are they?2007. Family Works University of Illinois extension. Accessed November 10. 2007. http//www.urbanext.uiuc.edu/familyworks/values-01.html5. _________Centre for Mediation Dispute Resolution, accessed in http//www.cmdronline.com/workshops.htm6. Taber, Loren. The Law in the Workplace. Accessed February 28, 2008. http//www.google.com/search?q=cache2K4rLBDHP90Jwww.cbi-cc.org/PowerPoints/The%2520Law%2520in%2520the%2520Workplace.ppt+women+issues+on+discrimination+in+salary/wageshl=enct=clnkcd=17. _________ Men vs Women Asking for more Money. The Washington Post. July 30, 2007. Accessed February 28, 2008 http//ocouha.com/weblog/tags/earnings-income-salary-wages-wealth/8. _________ Sexual Harassment in the Workplace. Toronto Harassment support Group. Retrieved February 28, 2008. http//www.owjn.org/issues /s-harass/work.htm

The History Of Bitumen Engineering Essay

The History Of Bitumen Engineering EssayBitumen is described as mankinds oldest intent material. This fact is supported by some evidence. Back at the prison term, intimately 3000 years BC, the Sumerians in Mesopotamia employ bitumen to fasten ivory or pearl into the eye sockets of their statues. They also sculptured votive offerings which the confection of their sculpture is origin completelyy from bitumen and clay.From the finding, it is turn up that some thousand years later, bitumen was universe use by the early Babylonians as a building material because of its properties as a cement and pissing proofing agent. Later, bitumen became the standard material and being used in civil engineering and architectural projects to hold bricks and st unrivalleds together which used to line drains, peecourses and grain storage. It was also being used to create damp courses and seal the flat roofs of the houses in the same way as it is used today. It is also fundamental in paving (As k.com, 21 Dec 2010).Other Evidence found that, about 600 BC King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon rebuilt the city wall, which he intends to restrain the water of the Euphrates with burnt bricks and bitumen because the old wall which is do of dried clay bricks had failed to reserve the waters at the bay. The Babylonians had developed a technique using layer of bricks, bitumen and clay which they reinforced with reed for construction purposes. The administration was so successful whereas they were able to build towers up to twelve storeys spirited. The evidence is proven when archeologists excavating the site of the ancient city and they found traces that bitumen had been used for the construction of the building.alternatively of using bitumen for construction, the reason why bitumen was widely used in this area was its availability in various casts. It merchant ship be found in certain(p) places where we asshole find it easily. It was also available as a solid material in the form o f bituminous limest unmatchable, which was used as the basis for diminished carvings. Because of its availability, bitumen has taken parts in many great legends of Biblical and pre-Biblical times. It is said that, bitumen has being used in the building of the Tower of Babel and for the waterproofing of Noahs Ark and Moses wicker basketful (Zayn Bilkadi, Dec 1984).The Romans used bitumen for medicinal purposes whereas they use bitumen for preventing and curing a number of ailments including boils, toothache and ringworm. Meanwhile, Roman ladies used bitumen for cosmetic purposes whereas they used bitumen as a instrument of beautifying their eyebrows. Bitumen also was being used for oceanic usage whereas Christopher Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh found that the lakes of pave in Trinidad are useful for re-caulking their ships for the return voyage. Apart from maritime usage, bitumen was used mainly for medicinal, cosmetic and crop protection purposes.On the other hand, the German metallurgist Georg Agricola was writing in the early part of the sixteenth vitamin C that Bitumen is produced from mineral waters containing oil, also from liquid bitumen and from trembles containing bitumen. Liquid bitumen sometimes floats in large quantities on the surface of wells, brooks and rivers and is collected with buckets or other pots. dainty quantities are collected by means of feathers, linen towels and the like. The bitumen easily adheres to these objects and is collected in big copper or iron vessels and the lighter fractions evaporated by warmth. The equipoise oil is used for various purposes and some people mix it with pitch, others with used axle oil to forge it thicker.On the other hand, the entry for bitumen in Blounts Glossary create in 1656 de first-rated it as a kind of clay or slime pictorially clammy, like pitch, growing in some countries of Asia. By the centre of the nineteenth century, the usage of bitumen for the road construction is to solve t he problem of the dust raised by the horse-drawn traffic in towns. The availability of supply of slant from local combust-gas plant led to the use of tar for treating streets and pavements. They started to realize the fundamental of streets and road which would lead to the unimagined standard of smoothness and durability for the elements haveed for their knowledgeability in the future. Rock asphalt and the Trinidad Lake were the sources of bitumen first used to bind mixtures of aggregates in road building in the modern style. (Asphalt Origin,)Nowadays, a small scale of game quality bitumen can be exploited from petroleum which is a readily available source of minuscule damage. The intersectionion of bitumen grew with the rise of the motorcar and the universal contain for paved highways. The proportion of bitumen which is resulted from petroleum refining whereas lead that today closely bitumen sources is from the distillation of crude petroleum oil. (BP , 2010).2.2 Bitumen Bitumen is a versatile material that is widely used in civil engineering. Bitumen is a mixture of organic liquid that are black, oily, highly viscous that is a naturally occurring organic product by product of decomposed organic materials. This basically consists of hydrocarbons ,carbon hydrogen the rest becomes oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and trace the various metals much(prenominal) as nickel, vanadium, lead, chromium, mercury and also arsenic, selenium and other toxic elements. Bitumen can provide good preservation of plants and animal fossils.Bitumen and asphalt is two different things. In American asphalt used to mean bitumen further outside American asphalt refers to the mixture of bitumen and aggregate laid as a road surface.HTOPEKBitumen Definition_filesBitumenInBeaker2.gifFigure 2.1 Bitumen2.3 Sources of bitumenBitumen can be derived from different type of sources. It occurs naturally, but for most occasions, the world relies on petroleum for the supplies of bitumen. The bit umen consists of crude petroleum oil that normally varies between 25% and 40%, but matter of crude oil can vary between 15% and 80% (BP 2010). There are trinity categorization for crude oil bitumen that is bitumen based, paraffin based or bitumen and paraffin based.Bitumen pose in the form of colloidal dispersion or in a true solution based on the type of crude petroleum oil. In the refining crop, the proportion of oil to bitumen particles changes because of petroleum oil is taken away by distillation. Relatively in few numbers, this particle become closer to one a nonher and their size increase when it is dispersed.At the time the distillation process stopped, the petroleum becomes a colloidal dispersion of black solid known as asphaltenes. This asphaltenes are dispersed in an oily brown yellow liquid, known as the maltenes fraction. It also react as a stabilizing agent to keep the asphaltenes in suspension are another group of hydrocarbon known as resins.Normally bitumen is fo und in a few forms, from the hard, easily crumbled bitumen in rock asphalt to the softer, more viscous material found in tar sands and so-called asphalt lakes. It is normally consist of varying proportions of mineral and vegetable impurities that need to be extracted before in can be used as engineering material. Bitumen also can be found as asphaltite. It is natural bitumen without an impurity that varies in the make out the asphaltite can be dissolve in carbon disulphide. Natural petroleum like bitumen naturally occurs as the result from the particular decompositions of marine debris.After thousands of years it has been move through porous rock such as limestone and sandstone often by volcanic action. In certain areas leading light for their petroleum resources, like in the Middle East, semi fluid bitumen can be found oozing out of fissures near hot spring or seeping out of the ground. Rock asphalt, it is more costly to move around and to process. This is because its variable an d relative low matter of bitumen and tends to be found away from the places where bitumen needed.It is important to distinguish between bitumen and sear tar. Even though coal tar is black and viscous like bitumen, it is obtained from the carbonization of coal that why it is very different chemical properties. Many part of the world in engineering project, from the construction of transcontinental highways to the waterproofing of flat roof surfaces, depending on the specific nature of asphalt. crude crude oil processed by the industry to provide all but a small part of this material is important.(BP, 2010)2.4 Manufacturing processManufacturing of bitumen consist of three processes which is refinery process, storage and dispersal.2.4.1 Refinery processIn oil refinery process, the crude oil is divided into different groups based on their boiling range. The first stage of refinery process is atmospheric distillation. In this process the crude oil is heated about 3000 C to 3500 C an d the more volatile components in the crude oil such as petrol and kerosene are distilled off. Residue from this process called atmosphere residue, which is need further distilled under inanity. Because of the applied vacuum, the effective distillation point is 5000 C 5600 C. this vacuum distillation process produce more volatile products called as vacuum distillates and leaves vacuum residue which is a non volatile residue of high viscosity.Based on the crude oil origin, the vacuum residue can be used directly as bitumen and for some cases of crude oil it needs additional process to meet certain specification such as sort blowing of the residue. To ensure consistent product, the ancestry blowing needs careful selection and control of process temperature, air rate and residence time. In other hand bitumen are produced by blending vacuum residue with asphaltenes which is derived from the production of lubricating oils. The selection of crude is the most important element of bitum en manufacture because it is required expertise and experience to yield a satisfactory product.2.4.2 StorageLarge permanent tank made of mild stain plate use to stored bitumen at refineries with capacities of between 100 and 10000 tones. To make sure the bitumen remain fluid, steam or hot oil is pumped during thaw oils in the heavily insulated tanks.2.4.3 DistributionTo make sure the bitumen not cool and unworkable the product must be kept between 150C-190C throughout the supply chain.The temperature of bitumen can fall about 7oC to 10oC when it is loaded into a road tanker and it lead continue to fall further while in transit. Most of the bitumen forget be transferred from the refineries using the road tankers with capacities of 10 to 40 tones. The road tanker is insulated by single-compartment tanks, normally with some kind of heating such as heating tubes. Insulated rail cars are sometimes used to transport bitumen to intermediary depots with reheating facilities.2.5 Propertie s of BitumenBitumen is a durable and strong adhesive use as a binder in many applications with other material without accepting their properties. Its durability is important to major engineering part such as road and water ways. Bitumen is insoluble in water and can be used as an effective water proofing sealant. Bitumen can be used to line watercourses because it resist and do not react with acid, alkalis, salt and does not contaminate water.Bitumen is soften and thermoplastic resin material. Bitumen becomes liquid when heated and hardens when it cools. Bitumen can used easily in the area where its need to used because it can readily be liquefied by one of three methods thats applying heat, dissolving it in petroleum closures or dispersing it in water (emulsification). hit production of bitumen is larger use in road construction. This is because bitumen gives flexibility to the mixed mineral aggregates that been used in road construction. It is available with economic cost all a round the world.2.6 Types of BitumenThere are several types of the bitumen below based on BP bitumen 20102.6.1 Paving grade bitumenThis type of bitumen considered as a parent bitumen of the other form of bitumen produced below. It is refined and blended to fulfill the industrial and road engineering specification that considered different climate set.2.6.2 Cutback bitumenThis type of bitumen has lower viscosity than other types of bitumen. This bitumen has been diluted in order to make it more flow able and suitable for application. Cutback bitumen mostly is used for cold weather bituminous, road construction and maintenance. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen. Fluidity of bitumen depends on the proportion of solvent and degree of hardness of the bitumen base. Cutback bitumen classified based to the time it takes to become solid, as quick curing (RC), medium curing (MC) or slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and p atchwork.MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates. SC is used for premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates. The solvent used for preparation of cutback of bitumen are white spirit commonly used for RC grades, kerosene for MC grades and diesel engine for SC grades. In view of the environment, health and safety cutback bitumen cause a problem because the solvent used evaporates and currently the evaporation is regarded as a potentially undesirable characteristic.2.6.3 Bitumen emulsionsFrequently the bitumen that been applied to mineral aggregates substrates in road construction is in the form called bitumen emulsion. Bitumen emulsions are the dispersion of bitumen in an aqueous continuous condition and been stabilized by the addition of emulsifier. Bitumen emulsions are the type binder can be used in hill road construction which the process of heating the bitumen or aggregates are not easy in that area.Rapid setting emulsions usually used for su rface dressing work, Medium setting emulsions use for premix jobs and patch repairs work and slow setting emulsions are ideal use during rainy season. Around 60% of bitumen content in the emulsion and the left over is water (Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao, 2007). During the road construction, these emulsions will breaks down resulting in released of water and the mix will starts to set. Grade of bitumen affect the time of setting. Bitumen emulsion is ideal for used in road construction because it have low viscosity and workable in ambient temperatures.But to apply this bitumen in road reservation process, it requires controlled breaking and setting. Bitumen should not break before it is laid on the surface of road but, once it placed, it should break quickly. This implies that the road can be in utility without delay.2.6.4 Modified bitumenModified bitumen is bitumen treated with modifiers. Certain additives added as bitumen modifiers to improve the service performance by chang ing such properties as their durability and hardness. Natural rubber, polymer and thermoplastic are commonly used to modify bitumen. This is an exciting development of growing importance due to the ability of modem technology to satisfy the demands of the bitumen and international market. Modified bitumen will contribute towards a longer road life and lower cost maintenance.2.6.5 Multi-grade BitumenThis type of bitumen is chemically modified bitumen. It has multi properties that are properties of hard paving bitumen at high service temperature with the properties of soft paving grades bitumen at low temperature. Multi-grade bitumen gives improvement in resistance to deformation2.6.6 Industrial bitumenIndustrial bitumen also known as change bitumen. This bitumen is made by blowing air through hot paving grade bitumen called blowing process. The result from blowing process is a product that softens bitumen at higher temperature than provide by paving grade bitumen softens. It also ha s rubberlike properties and its viscosity is less affected by changes in temperature than is the case with paving grade bitumen.2.7 Requirement of BitumenThe some indispensableness properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general, Bitumen should fulfill the following properties (Prof. Tom V. Mathew, 2009)The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible during the hottest weather the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not become too brittle causing cracks.The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix.2.8 Modification of bitumenMany studies have been conducted in order to improve the performance of bitumen used in road pavement by modified bi tumen with other material. Additional materials such as rubber, polymer and epoxy resin have been used as modifier in bitumen in the previous research. This study stresses on the usage of go change as an additive in bitumen.2.9 Coal combustion products locomote sheet modify is one of the coal combustion residues. Coal combustion residuals are formed during coal- importunate processes in power plants. Coal combustion product consists of several materials (R.Majko, 1996).2.9.1 vaporise changeFly change is the fines alter tree of coal ash particles from combustion of coal. It is called evaporate ash because it is transported from combustion chamber by exhaust gases. Fly ash is a fine powder produce from the mineral contain in coal. It also consists of noncombustible mater in coal and a small amount of carbon thats be because of incomplete combustion. Fly ash is usually light tan in emblazon. It is commonly consists of silt sized and clay sized glazed spheres which is gives go ash a consistency somewhat like talcum powder. The property of the rain navigate ash varies based on coal composition used and plant in operation(p) system.http//www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/FlyAsh1.JPGFigure 2.2 fly ash2.9.2 Bottom ashBottom ash and fly ash is two different materials in physical, mineralogical and chemical. Bottom ash is a coarse, granular, and incombustible material which is collected from the bottom of furnaces of combustion of coal in generation of electricity. Different with fly ash, bottom ash coarser than fly ash with grain sizes spanning from fine sand to fine gravel. The type of the bottom ash depends on type of furnaces used to burn a coal.http//www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/BottomAsh1.JPGFigure 2.3 bottom ash2.9.3 tympani SLAGBoiler slag is normally a black granular material with numerous engineering uses. It is formed in cyclone boilers which form a melted ash thats cooled with water. Boiler slag is coarser than fly ash.http//www.undeerc.org/carr c/Assets/BoilerSlag1.JPGFigure 2.4boiler slag2.9.4 FGD GYPSUMFlue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum is also can be defined as scrubbing brush gypsum. FGD gypsum is the product from an air pollution control system which is removes sulfur from the flue gas in calcium based scrubbing systems. It is composed of calcium sulphate and produced by employing forced oxidation in the scrubber. FGD gypsum is most usually used for agricultural activity and for wallboard production.http//www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/FGDMaterial1.JPGFigure 2.5 FGD gypsum2.10 Production of fly ashFly ash normally produced from burning of coal for power generation. Normally coal is pulverized and blown with air into the combustion chamber. In this part the coal will be ignites, generating heat and producing a molten residue. Then the boiler tubes will extract heat from the boiler and then cool the gas in the chimney. This make the residue from the combustion of coal harden and produce ash known as coal combustion p roducts. The coarse ash kwon as bottom ash andit will fall at the bottom of coal furnaces. In the other hand, the light ash will the light ash will remain hang up in the flue gas and will be collected by electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, or mechanical collection devices such as cyclones.CDocuments and Settingsto_pekDesktopproduction of fly ash.gifFigure 2.6 production of fly ash (ACAA, 1997)2.11 Utilization and benefit of fly ashFly ash have been used many part of the engineering application around the world. The table below shows the utilization of fly ash in the engineering part. (Fly ash facts for highway engineers, 2003).ApplicationBenefitused in Portland cement concrete (PCC)-improved workability-decrease water demand-reduced bleeding-improved durabilityused in stabilized base course-provide a strong and durable mixture-lower cost-suitable for using recycled base material-increased energy efficiencyused in flowable fill-allows placement under freezing conditions-reach 10 0% density with no compactive effort-increase soil bearing capacity-increase the speed and ease of backfilling operationsUsed in soil improvement-eliminates need for expensive materials-expedites construction works by improving unstable subgrade By improve subgrade conditions, cost saving through reduction in required pavement thickness.Used in asphalt pavement-reduce potential of asphalt stripping due to hydrophobic properties of fly ash-reduce stripping because fly ash consist of lime-a lower cost than other fillerUsed in grouts for pavement subsealing-develop high ultimate strength-accomplished quickly with minimum effect to the traffic flow.-used to correct undermining without2.12 Type of fly ashFly ash is collected use electrostatic precipitators or bag houses and then transferred to large silos for shipment. Fly ash divided base on precise particle size requirement, thus assuring a uniform and quality of product. There are 2 different type of fly ash from combustion of coal in large power plant which is class C and class F.2.12.1 Class CClass C fly ash is produced usually from lignite and sub-bituminous coals and normally contains significant amount of Calcium Hydroxide (CaO) or lime (Cockrell et. al., 1970). Fly ash class C will harden when exposure to the water. Class C normally contains more than 15% of lime and can reach until 30% of the composition (Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007). Higher of CaO in class C fly ash make it more special with self hardening characteristic. This is because calcium is a good adhesive agent. The existence of pozzolan properties in the fly ash class c make it different from fly ash class F.2.12.2 Class FClass F fly ash is produced from bituminous coals and burning anthracite .Class F is normally contains greater combination of silica, alumina and iron about 70% of the composition but low in lime content usually under about 15% of the composition (Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007). This fly ash has Siliceous and aluminous materia l, which itself possesses little or no cementitious value but in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react withCalcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form cementitious compounds (Chu et. al.,1993).2.13 indication of fly ash2.13.1 Size and shapeFly ash consist of powdery and fine particle that are in spherical shape, either in solid or hollow and mostly glassy in nature. The carbonaceous in fly ash consist of angular particles. The particle size distribution of bituminous coal fly ashes is usually similar to the silt which is less than a 0.075 mm or No. 200 sieve.Sub bituminous coal fly ashes are similar to the silt size and it is slightly coarser than bituminous coal fly ashes. A coarser particle can result in a less reactive ash and could contain higher carbon contents.Figure 2.7 Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification2.13.2 ColorBy depending on the amount of unburned carbon in the ash, the color of fly ash can be found and vary from tan to gray to black. If the fly ash contains low carbon, the color will be lighter. Lignite or sub bituminous fly ashes are typically light tan to buff in color, representing relatively low quantities of carbon in addition to the presence of some lime or calcium. However, bituminous fly ashes are usually some shade of gray, with the lighter dark glasses of gray generally indicating a higher quality of ash. Figure 2.8 typical fly ash colors2.13.3 Specific gravityThe specific gravity of fly ash is generally varies between 2.1to 3.0 whereas the specific surface area are varies in range from 170 to 1000 m2/kg that been measured by the Blaine air permeability method.2.13.4 Loss of ignitionLoss of ignition is a measured of remaining unburned carbon in a coal. It is a critical property of fly ash need to be measured, especially for concrete applications. High carbon levels, the type of carbon, the interaction of soluble ions in fly ash, and the variability of carbon content can cause air entrainmen t problem in fresh concrete and can affect the durability of the concrete. In some application of fly ash are not affected by the loss of ignition such as filler in asphalt and flowable fill can accept fly ash with high content of carbon.2.13.4 ChemistryChemical compositions of the coal mainly affect the chemical constituents of fly ash. Depending on the coal combustion technology used, the fly ash can be significantly different even though they are produced from the same source and similar chemical composition. Therefore the ash hydration properties with the remove characteristic can vary a lot between generating facilities.The combustion and glassification process used at certain power plant will affect the quantity of crystalline material versus glassy phase material because these two substances were depends on these two process. When the maximum temperature of the combustion process is above approximately 12000 C and the cooling time is short, the ash produced is mostly glassy phase material (McCarthy et. al., 1987). Crystalline phase calcium compounds are formed where boiler design or operation allows an extra gradual cooling of the ash particles.The factors that affect the hydration and leaching properties of fly ash such as the relative proportion of the spherical glassy phase and crystalline materials, the size distribution of the ash, the chemical nature of glass phase, the type of crystalline material, the nature and the percentage of unburned carbon (Roy et.al, 1985).Generally, the most important factors that influenced the mineralogy of coal fly ash are (Baker, 1987)Chemical composition of the coalCoal combustion process including coal pulverization, combustion, flue gas clean up, and fly ash collection operationsAdditives used, including oil additives for flame stabilization and corrosion control additives.The minerals present in the coal dictates the elemental composition of the fly ash. The boiler design and operation dictated the mineralogy of the ash.2.13.5 Chemical Requirements for Fly Ash Classification(Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007)PropertiesFly Ash ClassClass FClass CSilicon dioxide (SiO2) summation aluminum oxide (Al2O3) plus iron oxide (Fe2O3), min, %70.050.0Sulfur trioxide (SO3), max, %5.05.0Moisture Content, max, %3.03.0Loss on ignition, max, %6.06.0